Tracing roots of curses engraved in epitaphs
Inscriptions of curses, known as “accursed epitaphs,” have seemingly appeared throughout various historical eras and across the globe. Beyond these epitaphs, the words of malediction have also been used in the endings of many books, dissertations, and even talismans. It seems that curses have always been a potent tool for reinforcement and obedience, deeply ingrained in the beliefs of people. From the time people embraced prayer, curses also found their prevalence. They often serve as conditional statements to fulfill commands, contracts, preserving inscriptions, protecting the name of kings, deterring demolition and looting, or expressing hostility.
Morteza Rezvanfar, a member of the academic faculty at the Cultural Heritage and Tourism Research Institute, spoke to ISNA about the roots of curses in history, saying, “Curses and prayers share a common origin, with curses being a negative form of prayer. Both draw upon supernatural forces to achieve a desired outcome. It could be for the betterment of the recipient, seeking benevolence, or, conversely, seeking harm and malevolence against them. Even in the Persian language, ‘prayer’ is called ‘afarin,’ which, by replacing the initial ‘a’ with ‘n,’ and receiving some modification it becomes ‘nefreen’ (curse).”
According to historical documents, humans have often turned to supernatural forces, including the highest powers like God, to invoke curses and designate them as overseers or agents for fulfilling malevolent wishes. For instance, “May his lineage be eradicated beneath the sun,” or phrases like “May God or the gods curse him.” It was even believed that when curses were inscribed on epitaphs addressed to the most powerful entities like kings and rulers, they proved to be more effective.
The recipients of curses on epitaphs are usually individuals considered responsible for wrongdoing, and in some cases, these curses extend to their children, families, or tribes. Some curses are worldly, wishing for harm to health, extinction of descendants, or destruction. In other cases, curses target the afterlife and the future life of the individual.
It is interesting to note that in the Middle Persian period (Pahlavi era), apart from books and texts, curses were not seen on epitaphs, but they resurfaced again later.
The traces of curses can be observed in many parts of the world, as they have always been effective tools for motivation or prevention. In Iran, too, examples of these curses have been interpreted by experts from the Elamite and Achaemenid periods. For instance, the inscriptions on the Elamite ziggurat of Chogha Zanbil in Khuzestan Province read: “May the curses of the gods be upon him, and may he have no offspring under the sun.” Similarly, in the Darius inscription at Bisotun, the destroyer of the inscriptions and sculptures is warned: “Ahura Mazda may hurt you, and he may destroy whatever you do.”
Rezvanfar illustrated some of the curses inscribed on Persian epitaphs outside of Iran, citing examples such as:
An inscription from a mosque in Bangladesh: “Whoever destroys this mosque, if he is a Muslim, may he consume forbidden food; if he is Hindu, may he eat beef, and whoever keeps this edifice safe, may he have a high place.”
An epitaph from the mosque of Baku, Azerbaijan, offering tax reduction: “May the person who modifies the mentioned reduction be cursed by divine wrath and may he face the malediction of the refuge of the message.”
An inscription from a school in Derbent, Russia: “Henceforth, if anyone usurps, may God’s curse be upon him in abundance.”
The history and wide geographic distribution of curses in epitaphs underscore their enduring potency as a compelling tool for motivation or deterrence. From ancient times to the present day, the legacy of curses on epitaphs continues to leave its mark across diverse cultures worldwide.